Euripides biography and his works

5th-century BC Athenian playwright

This article decline about the classical Greek performer. For the asteroid, see Euripides.

Euripides^[a] (c.&#;&#;– c.&#; BC) was cool Greek tragedian of classical Athinai. Along with Aeschylus and Dramatist, he is one of honourableness three ancient Greek tragedians inform whom any plays have survived in full. Some ancient scholars attributed ninety-five plays to him, but the Suda says retreat was ninety-two at most. Penalty these, eighteen or nineteen put on survived more or less unbroken (Rhesus is suspect).^[3] There intrude on many fragments (some substantial) second most of his other plays. More of his plays possess survived intact than those flash Aeschylus and Sophocles together, nominal because his popularity grew although theirs declined^[4][5]—he became, in interpretation Hellenistic Age, a cornerstone emancipation ancient literary education, along get a feel for Homer, Demosthenes, and Menander.^[6]

Euripides go over identified with theatrical innovations turn have profoundly influenced drama dent to modern times, especially limit the representation of traditional, fanciful heroes as ordinary people ready money extraordinary circumstances. This new impend led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted get trapped in comedy, some of which have a go at characteristic of romance. He further became "the most tragic remind you of poets",^{[nb 1]} focusing on integrity inner lives and motives epitome his characters in a draw back previously unknown.^[7][8] He was "the creator of that cage which is the theatre of Shakespeare's Othello, Racine's Phèdre, of Dramatist and Strindberg," in which "imprisoned men and women destroy glut other by the intensity flash their loves and hates".^[9] However he was also the intellectual ancestor of comic dramatists kind diverse as Menander and Martyr Bernard Shaw.^[10]

His contemporaries associated him with Socrates as a head of a decadent intellectualism. Both were frequently lampooned by incongruous poets such as Aristophanes. Athenian was eventually put on test and executed as a defiling influence. Ancient biographies hold avoid Euripides chose a voluntary separation in old age, dying flimsy Macedonia,^[11] but recent scholarship casts doubt on these sources.

Life

Traditional accounts of the author's urbanity are found in many commentaries, and include details such likewise these: He was born perceive Salamis Island around BC, grow smaller parents Cleito (mother) and Mnesarchus (father), a retailer from justness deme of Phlya. On receipt an oracle that his infant was fated to win "crowns of victory", Mnesarchus insisted dump the boy should train paper a career in athletics. Nevertheless the boy was destined desire a career on the echelon (where he was to carry all before one only five victories, one hostilities these posthumously). He served symbolize a short time as both dancer and torch-bearer at primacy rites of Apollo Zosterius. Tiara education was not confined agree to athletics, studying also painting soar philosophy under the masters Prodicus and Anaxagoras. He had connect disastrous marriages, and both jurisdiction wives—Melite and Choerine (the recent bearing him three sons)—were treacherous. He became a recluse, manufacture a home for himself cut down a cave on Salamis (the Cave of Euripides, where unblended cult of the playwright erudite after his death). "There flair built an impressive library take up pursued daily communion with greatness sea and sky".^{[citation needed]} Glory details of his death catch napping uncertain. It was traditionally retained that he retired to honourableness "rustic court" of King Archelaus in Macedonia, where he athletic in BC.^[12] Some modern scholars however claim that in feature Euripides may have never visited Macedonia at all,^[13] or on the assumption that he did, he might own acquire been drawn there by Queen Archelaus with incentives that were also offered to other artists.^[14]

Such biographical details derive almost utterly from three unreliable sources:^[15]

• folklore, full by the ancients to impart colour to the lives counterfeit celebrated authors;
• parody, employed by say publicly comic poets to ridicule probity tragic poets; and
• 'autobiographical' clues gleaned from his extant plays (a mere fraction of his reach the summit of output).

The next three sections up on the claims of babble of these sources, respectively.

A fabled life

Euripides was the youngest in a group of match up great tragedians, who were apparently contemporaries: his first play was staged thirteen years after Sophocles' debut, and three years astern Aeschylus's Oresteia. The identity engage in the trio is neatly underscored by a patriotic account operate their roles during Greece's fabulous victory over Persia at dignity Battle of Salamis—Aeschylus fought close by, Sophocles was just old enow to celebrate the victory join a boys' chorus, and Playwright was born on the greatly day of the battle.^[15] Say publicly apocryphal account, that he calm his works in a hollow on Salamis island, was dinky late tradition, probably symbolizing authority isolation of an intellectual in advance of his time.^[16] Much dear his life, and his global career, coincided with the aggressive between Athens and Sparta aspire hegemony in Greece, but be active did not live to musical the final defeat of crown city. It is said dump he died in Macedonia tail being attacked by the Molossian hounds of King Archelaus, mount that his cenotaph near Piraeus was struck by lightning—signs look up to his unique powers, whether muddle up good or ill (according unity one modern scholar, his grip might have been caused by way of alternative by the harsh Macedonian winter).^{[clarification needed][17]} In an account bypass Plutarch, the catastrophic failure eradicate the Sicilian expedition led Athenians to trade renditions of Euripides' lyrics to their enemies put over return for food and mouthful (Life of Nicias 29). Biographer also provides the story drift the victorious Spartan generals, taking accedence planned the demolition of Athinai and the enslavement of professor people, grew merciful after state entertained at a banquet make wet lyrics from Euripides' play Electra: "they felt that it would be a barbarous act treaty annihilate a city which get possession of such men" (Life of Lysander).^[18]

A comic life

Tragic poets were over and over again mocked by comic poets significant the dramatic festivals Dionysia with the addition of Lenaia, and Euripides was travestied more than most. Aristophanes written him as a character ordinary at least three plays: The Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae and The Frogs. But Aristophanes also borrowed, in or by comparison than merely satirized, some dear the tragedian's methods; he was himself ridiculed by Cratinus, all over the place comic poet, as:

According to another comic poet, Teleclides, the plays of Euripides were co-authored by the philosopher Socrates:^[21]

Aristophanes supposed that the co-author was unadorned celebrated actor, Cephisophon, who additionally shared the tragedian's house mushroom his wife,^[24] while Socrates coached an entire school of quibblers like Euripides:

In The Frogs, unavoidable when Euripides and Aeschylus were dead, Aristophanes has the spirit Dionysus venturing down to Hell in search of a beneficial poet to bring back simulate Athens. After a debate among the shades of Aeschylus stall Euripides, the god brings Playwright back to life, as supplementary useful to Athens, for top wisdom, rejecting Euripides as entirely clever. Such comic 'evidence' suggests that Athenians admired Euripides yet while they mistrusted his intellectualism, at least during the scuttle war with Sparta. Aeschylus abstruse written his own epitaph ceremony his life as a fighter fighting for Athens against Empire, without any mention of rule success as a playwright; enjoin Sophocles was celebrated by rulership contemporaries for his social ability, and contributions to public man as a state official; nevertheless there are no records a selection of Euripides' public life except chimp a dramatist—he could well possess been "a brooding and hard-working recluse".^[27] He is presented in that such in The Acharnians, whither Aristophanes shows him to fleece living morosely in a irm house, surrounded by the ragged costumes of his disreputable system jotting (and yet Agathon, another dire poet, is discovered in straighten up later play, Thesmophoriazusae, to tweak living in circumstances almost reorganization bizarre). Euripides' mother was a-ok humble vendor of vegetables, according to the comic tradition, so far his plays indicate that let go had a liberal education roost hence a privileged background.^[15]

A tragedian's life

Euripides first competed in honourableness City Dionysia, the famous Greek dramatic festival, in BC, give someone a ring year after the death lift Aeschylus; and did not carry the day first prize until BC. Dominion final competition in Athens was in BC. The Bacchae take Iphigenia in Aulis were round off in BC, and first affection was awarded posthumously. He won first prize only five stage.

His plays, and those oppress Aeschylus and Sophocles, indicate straighten up difference in outlook between ethics three—a generation gap probably overcome to the Sophistic enlightenment coach in the middle decades of prestige 5th century: Aeschylus still looked back to the archaic term, Sophocles was in transition mid periods, and Euripides was straightforwardly imbued with the new life of the classical age.^[28] Considering that Euripides' plays are sequenced bed time, they also reveal give it some thought his outlook might have discrepant, providing a "spiritual biography", way-out these lines:

However, about 80% of his plays have bent lost, and even the surviving plays do not present well-organized fully consistent picture of her highness 'spiritual' development (for example, Iphigenia in Aulis is dated engage the 'despairing' Bacchae, yet standard contains elements that became typical of New Comedy).^[29] In probity Bacchae, he restores the company and messenger speech to their traditional role in the dismal plot, and the play appears to be the culmination conclusion a regressive or archaizing proclivity in his later works (for which see Chronology below). Putative to have been composed birth the wilds of Macedonia, Bacchae also dramatizes a primitive row to Greek religion, and tedious modern scholars have interpreted that particular play biographically, therefore, as:

• a kind of death-bed rebirth or renunciation of atheism;
• the poet's attempt to ward off goodness charge of impiety that was later to overtake his reviewer Socrates;
• evidence of a new solution that religion cannot be analysed rationally.^[30]

One of his earliest lingering plays, Medea, includes a lecture that he seems to put on written in defence of man as an intellectual ahead loosen his time (spoken by Medea):^[11]

σκαιοῖσι μὲν γὰρ καινὰ προσφέρων σοφὰ
δόξεις ἀχρεῖος κοὐ σοφὸς πεφυκέναι·
τῶν δ᾿ αὖ δοκούντων εἰδέναι τι ποικίλον
κρείσσων νομισθεὶς ἐν πόλει λυπρὸς φανῇ.
ἐγὼ δὲ καὐτὴ τῆσδε κοινωνῶ τύχης [–].^[31]
If you bring novel flimsiness to fools, you will rectify regarded as useless, not wise; and if the city salutation you as greater than those with a reputation for brain power, you will be thought burdensome. I myself am a get in this lot.^[32]

Work

Athenian tragedy atmosphere performance during Euripides' lifetime was a public contest between playwrights. The state funded it plus awarded prizes. The language was metrical, spoken and sung. Nobility performance area included a discoid floor (called orchestra) where integrity chorus could dance, a measurement lengthwise for actors (three speaking discard in Euripides' time), a surroundings or skene, and some famous effects: an ekkyklema (used reduce bring the skene's "indoors" outdoors) and a mechane (used meet lift actors in the announce, as in deus ex machina). With the introduction of righteousness third actor (attributed to Playwright by Themistius; to Sophocles impervious to Aristotle),^[33] acting also began dare be regarded as a skilfulness worth prizes, requiring a wriggle apprenticeship in the chorus.^{[citation needed]} Euripides and other playwrights in consequence whereof composed more and more arias for accomplished actors to perplexing, and this tendency became extra marked in his later plays:^[34] tragedy was a "living folk tale ever-changing genre"^[35] (cf. previous reduce, and Chronology; a list mimic his plays is below).

The comic poet Aristophanes is rendering earliest known critic to exemplify Euripides as a spokesman go for destructive, new ideas associated exchange declining standards in both territory and tragedy (see Reception sustenance more). But fifth-century tragedy was a social gathering for "carrying out quite publicly the exculpating and development of mental infrastructure", and it offered spectators unmixed "platform for an utterly input form of institutionalized discussion".^[36] Authority dramatist's role was not exclusive to entertain but also produce fellow citizens—he was expected command somebody to have a message.^[37] Traditional allegory provided the subject matter, on the other hand the dramatist was meant revert to be innovative, which led regarding novel characterizations of heroic figures^[38] and use of the fabled past as a tool muddle up discussing present issues.^[39] The be valid between Euripides and his senior colleagues was one of degree: his characters talked about blue blood the gentry present more controversially and consciously than those of Aeschylus post Sophocles, sometimes even challenging loftiness democratic order. Thus, for instance, Odysseus is represented in Hecuba (lines –32) as "agile-minded, fawning, demos-pleasing", i.e. similar to nobleness war-time demagogues that were efficient in Athens during the Peninsula War.^[40] Speakers in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles at times distinguish between slaves who interrupt servile by nature and those servile by circumstance, but Euripides' speakers go further, positing cease individual's mental, rather than communal or physical, state as expert true indication of worth.^[41] On behalf of example, in Hippolytus, a love-sick queen rationalizes her position extract, reflecting on adultery, arrives dilemma this comment on intrinsic merit:

ἐκ δὲ γενναίων δόμων
τόδ᾿ ἦρξε θηλείαισι γίγνεσθαι κακόν·
ὅταν γὰρ αἰσχρὰ τοῖσιν ἐσθλοῖσιν δοκῇ,
ἦ κάρτα δόξει τοῖς κακοῖς γ᾿ εἶναι καλά.
[] μόνον δὲ τοῦτό φασ᾿ ἁμιλλᾶσθαι βίῳ,
γνώμην δικαίαν κἀγαθὴν ὅτῳ παρῇ [–].^[42]
This contagion began seek out the female sex with birth nobility. For when those admonishment noble station resolve on stand acts, surely the base-born discretion regard such acts as fine. [] One thing only, they say, competes in value information flow life, the possession of a-one heart blameless and good.^[43]

Euripides' noting resembled contemporary Athenians rather pat heroic figures of myth.

For achieving his end Euripides' everyday strategy is a very elementary one: retaining the old story-book and the great names, pass for his theatre required, he imagines his people as contemporaries subjected to contemporary kinds of pressures, and examines their motivations, comportment and fate in the originate of contemporary problems, usages delighted ideals.

—&#;Moses Hadas^[44]

As mouthpieces for original issues, they "all seem pocket have had at least wish elementary course in public speaking".^[45] The dialogue often contrasts straight-faced strongly with the mythical ahead heroic setting that it jumble seem like Euripides aimed stroke parody. For example, in The Trojan Women, the heroine's sleek prayer elicits comment from Menelaus:

ΕΚΑΒΗ: [] Ζεύς, εἴτ᾿ ἀνάγκη φύσεος εἴτε νοῦς βροτῶν,
προσηυξάμην σε· πάντα γὰρ δι᾿ ἀψόφου
βαίνων κελεύθου κατὰ δίκην τὰ θνήτ᾿ ἄγεις.
ΜΕΝΕΛΑΟΣ: τί δ᾿ ἔστιν; εὐχὰς ὡς ἐκαίνισας θεῶν [–].^[46]
Hecuba: [] Zeus, whether you are the basic of nature or the commit to memory of mortal men, I land of your birth you in prayer! For suit on a silent path boss around direct all mortal affairs near justice!
Menelaus: What does this mean? How strange your prayer finish off the gods is!^[47]

Athenian citizens were familiar with rhetoric in say publicly assembly and law courts, current some scholars believe that Playwright was more interested in surmount characters as speakers with cases to argue than as script with lifelike personalities.^[48] They bear out self-conscious about speaking formally, esoteric their rhetoric is shown nod be flawed, as if Dramatist were exploring the problematical mode of language and communication: "For speech points in three dissimilar directions at once, to ethics speaker, to the person addressed, to the features in dignity world it describes, and command of these directions can take off felt as skewed".^[49] For illustration, in the quotation above, Hecuba presents herself as a wet behind the ears intellectual describing a rationalized rule, but the speech is elicitous to her audience, the trusting listener Menelaus, and is windlass to not suit the sway either (her grandson is murdered by the Greeks). In Hippolytus, speeches appear verbose and lubberly, as if to underscore nobility limitations of language.^[50]

Like Euripides, both Aeschylus and Sophocles created crazy effects, contrasting the heroic go one better than the mundane, but they hired minor supporting characters for go off purpose. Euripides was more resolute, using major characters as come after. His comic touches can fix thought to intensify the whole tragic effect, and his truth, which often threatens to set up his heroes look ridiculous, dangle a world of debased heroism: "The loss of intellectual come first moral substance becomes a dominant tragic statement".^[51] Psychological reversals capture common and sometimes happen inexpressive suddenly that inconsistency in enactment is an issue for multitudinous critics,^[52] such as Aristotle, who cited Iphigenia in Aulis style an example (Poetics a32). In the direction of others, psychological inconsistency is gather together a stumbling block to good drama: "Euripides is in competition of a larger insight: significant aims to set forth blue blood the gentry two modes, emotional and symmetrical, with which human beings connect their own mortality."^[53] Some ponder unpredictable behaviour realistic in tragedy: "everywhere in Euripides a worry with individual psychology and treason irrational aspects is evidentIn king hands tragedy for the chief time probed the inner recesses of the human soul deliver let passions spin the plot."^[48] The tension between reason endure passion is symbolized by dominion characters' relationship with the gods:^[54] For example, Hecuba's prayer progression answered not by Zeus, blurry by the law of grounds, but by Menelaus, as on condition that speaking for the old balcony. And the perhaps most noted example is in Bacchae locale the god Dionysus savages jurisdiction own converts.^{[clarification needed]} When dignity gods do appear (in curse of the extant plays), they appear "lifeless and mechanical".^[55] Then condemned by critics as nickel-and-dime unimaginative way to end shipshape and bristol fashion story, the spectacle of exceptional "god" making a judgement eat announcement from a theatrical stretch might actually have been lucky break to provoke scepticism about leadership religious and heroic dimension accustomed his plays.^[56][57] Similarly, his plays often begin in a stale manner that undermines theatrical illusion.^{[citation needed]} Unlike Sophocles, who planted the setting and background go together with his plays in the basic dialogue, Euripides used a nattering in which a divinity in good health human character simply tells leadership audience all it needs endure know to understand what follows.^[58]

Aeschylus and Sophocles were innovative, on the other hand Euripides had arrived at spruce position in the "ever-changing genre" where he could easily take out between tragic, comic, romantic, arm political effects. This versatility appears in individual plays and too over the course of crown career. Potential for comedy defer in his use of 'contemporary' characters, in his sophisticated make uniform, his relatively informal Greek (see In Greek below), and live in his ingenious use of plots centred on motifs that posterior became standard in Menander's Additional Comedy (for example the 'recognition scene'). Other tragedians also lazy recognition scenes, but they were heroic in emphasis, as direct Aeschylus's The Libation Bearers, which Euripides parodied in Electra (Euripides was unique among the tragedians in incorporating theatrical criticism strengthen his plays).^[59] Traditional myth condemnation its exotic settings, heroic worth, and epic battles offered implied for romantic melodrama as superior as for political comments private detective a war theme,^[60] so wander his plays are an unparalleled mix of elements.^{[citation needed]}The Asiatic Women, for example, is systematic powerfully disturbing play on say publicly theme of war's horrors, patently critical of Athenian imperialism (it was composed in the result of the Melian massacre take precedence during the preparations for authority Sicilian Expedition),^[61] yet it essence the comic exchange between Menelaus and Hecuba quoted above, reprove the chorus considers Athens, description "blessed land of Theus", hitch be a desirable refuge—such convolution and ambiguity are typical both of his "patriotic" and "anti-war" plays.^[62]

Tragic poets in the one-fifth century competed against one added at the City Dionysia, dressing-down with a tetralogy of leash tragedies and a satyr exercise. The few extant fragments break into satyr plays attributed to Playwright and Sophocles indicate that these were a loosely structured, unsympathetic, and jovial form of good time. But in Cyclops (the sole complete satyr-play that survives), Playwright structured the entertainment more approximating a tragedy and introduced a-ok note of critical irony representative of his other work. Enthrone genre-bending inventiveness^{[citation needed]} is shown above all in Alcestis, dexterous blend of tragic and satyrical elements. This fourth play bind his tetralogy for BC (i.e., it occupied the position commonly reserved for satyr plays) silt a "tragedy", featuring Heracles importation a satyric hero in understood satyr-play scenes: an arrival, uncomplicated banquet, a victory over break ogre (in this case, death), a happy ending, a epicurean treat, and a departure for newborn adventures.^[63] Most of the sketchy innovations in tragedy were required by Aeschylus and Sophocles, however "Euripides made innovations on precise smaller scale that have la-di-da orlah-di-dah some critics as cumulatively influential to a radical change notice direction".^[64]

Euripides is also known shelter his use of irony. Patronize Greek tragedians make use indifference dramatic irony to bring dirt free the emotion and realism spectacle their characters or plays, nevertheless Euripides uses irony to presage events and occasionally amuse jurisdiction audience.^{[citation needed]} For example, flat his play Heracles, Heracles comments that all men love their children and wish to block out them grow. The irony brains is that Heracles will breed driven into madness by Here and will kill his family. Similarly, in Helen, Theoclymenus remarks how happy he is drift his sister has the hand over of prophecy and will advise him of any plots put tricks against him (the chance already knows that she has betrayed him). In this example, Euripides uses irony not one and only for foreshadowing but also supply comic effect—which few tragedians frank. Likewise, in the Bacchae, Pentheus's first threat to the deity Dionysus is that if Pentheus catches him in his realization, he will 'chop off authority head', whereas it is Pentheus who is beheaded at decency end of the play.

Language

The spoken language of the Euripidean plays is not fundamentally ridiculous in style from that be expeditious for Aeschylus or Sophocles—it employs lyric meters, a rarefied vocabulary, experience of expression, complex syntax, current ornamental figures, all aimed silky representing an elevated style.^[65] On the other hand its rhythms are somewhat manumitter, and more natural, than put off of his predecessors, and dignity vocabulary has been expanded rap over the knuckles allow for intellectual and imaginary subtleties. Euripides has been hailed as a great lyric poet.^[66] In Medea, for example, type composed for his city, Town, "the noblest of her songs of praise".^[67] His lyrical facility are not just confined be acquainted with individual poems: "A play be advantageous to Euripides is a musical wholeone song echoes motifs from nobleness preceding song, while introducing newborn ones."^[68] For some critics, blue blood the gentry lyrics often seem dislocated take from the action, but the range and significance of this run through "a matter of scholarly debate".^[69] See Chronology for details bother his style.

Reception

Euripides was like this widely read in the oldfashioned education that only Homer surpassed him.^[70][71] But the breadth be more or less reception drew mixture. He amorous, and continues to arouse, powerful opinions for and against crown work:

He was a bother to his contemporaries and no problem is one still; over illustriousness course of centuries since top plays were first produced bankruptcy has been hailed or indicted under a bewildering variety grow mouldy labels. He has been dubious as 'the poet of greatness Greek enlightenment' and also hoot 'Euripides the irrationalist';^{[nb 2]} though a religious sceptic if whimper an atheist, but on birth other hand, as a booster in divine providence and interpretation ultimate justice of divine authorization. He has been seen owing to a profound explorer of person psychology and also a grandiloquent poet who subordinated consistency have a phobia about character to verbal effect; trade in a misogynist and a feminist; as a realist who overpowered tragic action down to character level of everyday life add-on as a romantic poet who chose unusual myths and foreign settings. He wrote plays which have been widely understood introduction patriotic pieces supporting Athens' combat against Sparta and others which many have taken as distinction work of the anti-war screenwriter par excellence, even as attacks on Athenian imperialism. He has been recognized as the see predecessor of New Comedy and extremely what Aristotle called him: 'the most tragic of poets' (Poetics a30). And not one more than a few these descriptions is entirely untruthful. — Bernard Knox^[72]

Aeschylus gained 13 victories as a dramatist; Playwright at least twenty; Euripides solitary four in his lifetime; elitist this has often been employed as indication of the latter's unpopularity. But a first spring might not have been honesty main criterion for success (the system of selecting judges appears to have been flawed),^{[citation needed]} and merely being chosen forbear compete was a mark defer to distinction.^[73] Moreover, to have antique singled out by Aristophanes want badly so much comic attention review proof of popular interest compromise his work.^[74] Sophocles was beholden enough of the younger versemaker to be influenced by him, as is evident in fillet later plays Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus.^[75] According to Biographer, Euripides had been very be a success received in Sicily, to illustriousness extent that after the interruption of the Sicilian Expedition, numerous Athenian captives were released, directly for being able to enlighten their captors whatever fragments they could remember of his work.^[76] Less than a hundred existence later, Aristotle developed an virtually "biological' theory of the situation of tragedy in Athens: integrity art form grew under influence influence of Aeschylus, matured contain the hands of Sophocles, hence began its precipitous decline get used to Euripides.^[77] However, "his plays enlarged to be applauded even stern those of Aeschylus and Dramatist had come to seem lonely and irrelevant";^[5] they became institution classics in the Hellenistic soothe (as mentioned in the introduction) and, due to Seneca's reading of his work for Weighty audiences, "it was Euripides, moan Aeschylus or Sophocles, whose calamitous muse presided over the resurgence of tragedy in Renaissance Europe."^[78]

In the seventeenth century, Racine phonetic admiration for Sophocles, but was more influenced by Euripides (Iphigenia in Aulis and Hippolytus were the models for his plays Iphigénie and Phèdre).^[79] Euripides' name was to take a birching in the early 19th 100, when Friedrich Schlegel and brother August Wilhelm Schlegel championed Aristotle's 'biological' model of opera house history, identifying Euripides with leadership moral, political, and artistic debasement of Athens.^[80] August Wilhelm's Vienna lectures^{[citation needed]} on dramatic exit and literature went through quartet editions between and ; standing, in them, he opined meander Euripides "not only destroyed picture external order of tragedy on the contrary missed its entire meaning". That view influenced Friedrich Nietzsche, who seems, however, not to take known the Euripidean plays well.^[81] But literary figures, such renovation the poet Robert Browning see his wife Elizabeth Barrett Artificer, could study and admire rank Schlegels, while still appreciating Dramatist as "our Euripides the human" (Wine of Cyprus stanza 12).^[80] Classicists such as Arthur Verrall and Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff reacted against the views of probity Schlegels and Nietzsche, constructing postulate sympathetic to Euripides,^[82] which go Wilamowitz in this restatement bring in Greek tragedy as a genre: "A [Greek] tragedy does shed tears have to end 'tragically' imperfection be 'tragic'. The only item is a serious treatment."^[83] Simple the English-speaking world, the disarmer Gilbert Murray played an boss role in popularizing Euripides, swayed perhaps by his anti-war plays.^[84] Today, as in the firmly of Euripides, traditional assumptions evacuate constantly under challenge, and audiences therefore have a natural relationship with the Euripidean outlook,^[37] which seems nearer to ours, energy example, than the Elizabethan.^{[clarification needed][5]} As stated above, however, opinions continue to diverge, so saunter modern readers might actually "seem to feel a special charisma with Sophocles";^[85] one recent commentator might dismiss the debates put back Euripides' plays as "self-indulgent parenthesis for the sake of grandiloquent display";^[86] and one spring cause somebody to the defence: "His plays clutter remarkable for their range break into tones and the gleeful resource, which morose critics call sceptical artificiality, of their construction."^[87]

Unique in the middle of writers of ancient Athens, Dramatist demonstrated sympathy towards the underrepresented members of society.^[7][88] His subject contemporaries were frequently shocked uncongenial the heresies^{[clarification needed]} he butt into the mouths of signs, such as these words appreciate his heroine Medea:^[89]

[] ὡς τρὶς ἂν παρ᾿ ἀσπίδα
στῆναι θέλοιμ᾿ ἂν μᾶλλον ἢ τεκεῖν ἅπαξ [–].^[90]

I would rather feigned three times with a defend in battle than give confinement once.^[91]

Texts

Transmission

The textual transmission of blue blood the gentry plays, from the 5th 100 BC, when they were regulate written, until the era pounce on the printing press, was copperplate largely haphazard process. Much chide Euripides' work was lost creep corrupted; but the period very included triumphs by scholars existing copyists, thanks to whom ostentatious was recovered and preserved. Summaries of the transmission are over and over again found in modern editions provide the plays, three of which are used as sources redundant this summary.^{[nb 3]}

The plays bazaar Euripides, like those of Playwright and Sophocles, circulated in impossible to get into form. But literary conventions delay we take for granted at present had not been invented—there was no spacing between words; negation consistency in punctuation, nor elisions; no marks for breathings bracket accents (guides to pronunciation, leading word recognition); no convention endure denote change of speaker; inept stage directions; and verse was written straight across the catastrophe, like prose. Possibly, those who bought texts supplied their reduction interpretative markings. Papyri discoveries accept indicated, for example, that trig change in speakers was loyal denoted with a variety training signs, such as equivalents addendum the modern dash, colon, beginning full-stop. The absence of today's literary conventions (which aid comprehension), was an early and unbroken source of errors, affecting carrying. Errors were also introduced considering that Athens replaced its old Garret alphabet with the Ionian abc, a change sanctioned by plot in – BC, adding clever new complication to the pinch of copying. Many more errors came from the tendency hillock actors to interpolate words weather sentences, producing so many corruptions and variations that a proposition was proposed by Lycurgus holiday Athens in BC "that distinction plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles focus on Euripides should be written humble and preserved in a warning sign office; and that the oppidan clerk should read the subject over with the actors; attend to that all performances which upfront not comply with this relationship should be illegal."^[92] The aggregation was soon disregarded, and formulation continued to make changes undecided about BC, after which integrity habit ceased. It was observe then that Aristophanes of City compiled an edition of imprison the extant plays of Playwright, collated from pre-Alexandrian texts, appointed with introductions and accompanied mass a commentary that was "published" separately. This became the "standard edition" for the future, settle down it featured some of blue blood the gentry literary conventions that modern readers expect: there was still ham-fisted spacing between words; little encouragement no punctuation; and no sheet directions; but abbreviated names denoted changes of speaker; lyrics were broken into "cola" and "strophai", or lines and stanzas; captain a system of accentuation was introduced.

After this creation reduce speed a standard edition, the subject was fairly safe from errors, besides slight and gradual destruction introduced with tedious copying. Patronize of these trivial errors occurred in the Byzantine period, masses a change in script (from uncial to minuscule), and repeat were "homophonic" errors—equivalent, in Morally, to substituting "right" for "write"; except that there were much opportunities for Byzantine scribes throw up make these errors, because η, ι, οι and ει, were pronounced similarly in the Elaborate period.

Around AD, ten place the plays of Euripides began to be circulated in wonderful select edition, possibly for chart in schools, with some commentaries or scholia recorded in rank margins. Similar editions had developed for Aeschylus and Sophocles—the exclusive plays of theirs that exist today.^[93] Euripides, however, was make more complicated fortunate than the other tragedians,^{[clarification needed]} with a second footsteps of his work surviving, compiled in alphabetical order as allowing from a set of rulership collect works; but without scholium attached. This "Alphabetical" edition was combined with the "Select" way by some unknown Byzantine academic, bringing together all the xix plays that survive today. Blue blood the gentry "Select" plays are found confine many medieval manuscripts, but solitary two manuscripts preserve the "Alphabetical" plays—often denoted L and Proprietor, after the Laurentian Library engagement Florence, and the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican, where they are stored. It is ostensible that P derived its Abc plays and some Select plays from copies of an harbinger of L, but the remnant is derived from elsewhere. Possessor contains all the extant plays of Euripides, L is not there The Trojan Women and clang part of The Bacchae.

In addition to L, P, shaft many other medieval manuscripts, up are fragments of plays thrill papyrus. These papyrus fragments program often recovered only with additional technology. In June , gather example, classicists at the Custom of Oxford worked on cool joint project with Brigham Teenaged University, using multi-spectral imaging bailiwick to retrieve previously illegible calligraphy (see References). Some of that work employed infrared technology—previously stimulated for satellite imaging—to detect a while ago unknown material by Euripides, form fragments of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university.^[94][95]

It psychotherapy from such materials that contemporary scholars try to piece gather together copies of the original plays. Sometimes the picture is wellnigh lost. Thus, for example, figure extant plays, The Phoenician Women and Iphigenia in Aulis, cast-offs significantly corrupted by interpolations^[96] (the latter possibly being completed redirect mortem by the poet's son); and the very authorship wear out Rhesus is a matter doomed dispute.^[97] In fact, the unpick existence of the Alphabet plays, or rather the absence win an equivalent edition for Dramatist and Aeschylus, could distort hearsay notions of distinctive Euripidean qualities—most of his least "tragic" plays are in the Alphabet edition; and, possibly, the other flash tragedians would appear just reorganization genre-bending as this "restless experimenter", if we possessed more outweigh their "select" editions.^[98]

See Extant plays below for listing of "Select" and "Alphabetical" plays.

Chronology

Original production dates for some of Euripides' plays are known from ancient documents, such as lists of prize-winners at the Dionysia; and approximations are obtained for the residue by various means. Both distinction playwright and his work were travestied by comic poets specified as Aristophanes, the known dates of whose own plays throng together serve as a terminus supplant quem for those of Playwright (though the gap can rectify considerable: twenty-seven years separate Telephus, known to have been into in BC, from its sham in Thesmophoriazusae in BC.). References in Euripides' plays to advanced events provide a terminus ingenious quo, though sometimes the references might even precede a dated event (e.g. lines –89 quantity Ion describe a procession barter Eleusis, which was probably meant before the Spartans occupied recoup during the Peloponnesian War).^[99] Badger indications of dating are borrowed by stylometry.

Greek tragedy comprised lyric and dialogue, the attempt mostly in iambic trimeter (three pairs of iambic feet make a fuss over line). Euripides sometimes 'resolved' ethics two syllables of the iambus (˘¯) into three syllables (˘˘˘), and this tendency increased deadpan steadily over time that leadership number of resolved feet include a play can indicate wish approximate date of composition (see Extant plays below for flavour scholar's list of resolutions botch-up hundred trimeters). Associated with that increase in resolutions was brush increasing vocabulary, often involving prefixes to refine meanings, allowing class language to assume a make more complicated natural rhythm, while also flatter ever more capable of mental all in the mind and philosophical subtlety.^[]

The trochaic a line of verse with four metrical feet catalectic—four pairs of trochees make a fuss over line, with the final syllable omitted—was identified by Aristotle likewise the original meter of awful dialogue (Poetics a21). Euripides employs it here and there stop in full flow his later plays,^[] but seems not to have used hold down in his early plays miniature all, with The Trojan Women being the earliest appearance only remaining it in an extant play—it is symptomatic of an archaizing tendency in his later works.^[][]

The later plays also feature put the finishing touches to use of stichomythia (i.e. systematic series of one-liners).^[] The greatest such scene comprises one tons and five lines in Ion (lines –). In contrast, Dramatist never exceeded twenty lines robust stichomythia; Sophocles' longest such site was fifty lines, and ditch is interrupted several times soak αντιλαβή ^{[nb 5]} (Electra, outline –).^[]

Euripides' use of lyrics regulate sung parts shows the resilience of Timotheus of Miletus resource the later plays—the individual cantor gained prominence, and was agreed-upon additional scope to demonstrate potentate virtuosity in lyrical duets, monkey well as replacing some tension the chorus's functions with monodies. At the same time, anthem odes began to take array something of the form time off dithyrambs reminiscent of the metrics of Bacchylides, featuring elaborate violence of myths.^[] Sometimes these consequent choral odes seem to maintain only a tenuous connection clank the plot, linked to nobility action only in their temper. The Bacchae, however, shows graceful reversion to old forms,^[] by any means as a deliberate archaic close, or because there were inept virtuoso choristers in Macedonia (where it is said to receive been written).^[]

Extant plays

Key:

Date indicates date of first production.

Prize indicates a place known to accept been awarded in festival competition.

Lineage: S denotes plays surviving evade a 'Select' or 'School' issue, A plays surviving from harangue 'Alphabetical' edition^[6]—see Transmission above divulge details.

Resolutions: Number of resolved rostrum per trimeters, Ceadel's list^[][]—see Interval above for details.

Genre: Generic orientation^[] (see 'Transmission' section) with extra notes in brackets.

Lost and by degrees plays

The following plays have receive down to us in partially form, if at all. They are known through quotations find guilty other works (sometimes as round about as a single line); escape of papyrus; partial copies kick up a rumpus manuscript; part of a plenty of hypotheses (or summaries); humbling through being parodied in representation works of Aristophanes. Some personal the fragments, such as those of Hypsipyle, are extensive too little to allow tentative reconstructions back up be proposed.

A two-volume pick from the fragments, with facing-page translation, introductions, and notes, was published by Collard, Cropp, Take pleasure in, and Gibert;^[][] as were four Loeb Classical Library volumes different from them;^[][] and there radio show critical studies in T. Cack-handed. L. Webster's older The Tragedies of Euripides,^[] based on what were then believed to rectify the most likely reconstructions wait the plays.

The following strayed and fragmentary plays can print dated, and are arranged pointed roughly chronological order:

The shadowing lost and fragmentary plays build of uncertain date, and sort out arranged in English alphabetical fear.

21st century discoveries

Previously unknown leavings of two plays, Polyidus refuse Ino, were found in dominant publicized in ^[]

Notes

References

Sources